Greenstreet, Nicholas --- "Sustainable Development Goals: Comparative Review of Successful Law and Policy and Global Challenges Accomplishing Quality Education, Climate Action and Affordable and Clean Energy" [2022] UNSWLawJlStuS 15; (2022) UNSWLJ Student Series No 22-15

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS: COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF SUCCESSFUL LAW AND POLICY AND GLOBAL CHALLENGES ACCOMPLISHING QUALITY EDUCATION, CLIMATE ACTION AND AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY

NICHOLAS GREENSTREET

I INTRODUCTION

Sustainable development has become an international concern that has been subject to much political debate in the recent decades. The framework of sustainable development has slowly become more prevalent in areas of development planning, activism, governmental regulations on water and biodiversity and renewable energies.^[1] Contributing to the development of the sustainable development framework, was the result of identifying the need for a sustainable future and the growing connection between environmental damage and human behaviour.^[2] A multidisciplinary approach in literature analyses this connection and seeks to advance understanding on human development, natural resources and social and economic systems and its influence on sustainability. ^[3] Cooperation between nations, non-government organisations, multi-levels of government and the general public is therefore required to contribute to the overall goal of a sustainable future.^[4]

Considering the negative influences of human behaviour on the environment, an introduction to 17 Sustainable Development Goals (‘SDGs’) was introduced by the United Nations under the ‘2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ (‘2030 Agenda’) in 2015. This paper will explore the key considerations in sustainable development within the 2030 Agenda and critically analyse the current progress of law and policy in three sustainable development areas: quality education (Goal 4), climate action (Goal 13) and affordable and clean energy (Goal 7). Research will cover a comparative analysis of various jurisdictions key sustainability policies, identify challenges and opportunities and provide recommendations on whether the sustainability goal will be achieved according to the targets of the 2030 Agenda.

II CONTEXT OF RESEARCH

A United Nations: Founding Principles of Sustainable Development

Adopting SDGs was internationally acknowledged to be priority in the late 20^th century.^[5] These goals were not limited to any one form of global action as the requirement at the time was to adopt certain principles to establish legal and public policies in order to ‘improve human lives and protect the environment’.^[6] The initial movement towards such goals were reflected at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio 1992,^[7] with more than 178 counties adopting Agenda 21.^[8] With a substantial positive global response to Agenda 21, it paved a way for proactively addressing the modern-day concerns with humanities current status in relation to ‘poverty, hunger, ill health and illiteracy’ and the environmental concerns on the basis of scientific research.^[9] From the initial progress at the Earth Summit in 1992, the United Nations held other conferences after Agenda 21, further recognising a need to develop sustainable development initiatives.^[10] Viewing the historical conferences through a critical lens, it shows that the previous conventions and international agreements, provide the first guiding international principles on sustainability.^[11] Agenda 21 provided the basis of connecting ‘environmental and human development concerns’ which was previously not considered to the international community to this degree.^[12]

B Sustainable Development Goals: 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

The United Nations and its Member States have developed upon the previously discussed environmental and human development principles and incorporated specific goals and initiatives under the 2030 Agenda. These SDGs reflect many of the goals within Agenda 21, however, with the adoption of 2030 Agenda, it provided a clear goal and future timeline to achieve targets and actions over a 15-year timeline. The final agreement of the SDGs were a reflection of years of negotiations with a significant amount of United Nation Member States cooperating to draft this agreement.^[13] The 17 SDGs were initially adopted on 25 September 2015, with an objective to ‘provide a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future’.^[14] Within the SDGs, there are actions to be performed by governmental and non-governmental organisations at the corporate and individual levels.^[15] These contributions by international and state communities, aim to achieve the overall governance and improvement upon the global climate crisis and other social and economic areas reflected within the objectives of the 17 SDGs.^[16]

The implication of providing targeted goals and actions within established SDGs is that international communities have a clear, measurable target. This was previously difficult to measure under the previous sustainability goals in Agenda 21.^[17] Current sustainable development reports have tracked the SDGs and the overall performance of all 193 UN Member States.^[18] This will contribute to the discussion related to the SDGs within this research and suggest that a multidisciplinary approach should be considered when determining whether the goals will be met by 2030 and what policies can help achieve these goals.

C Global Response: Collaborative Frameworks and International Responsibility

International cooperation of the 2030 Agenda was significant with all of the UN Member States committing to the 17 SDGs and their targets after years of negotiation and consultation.^[19] The 2030 Agenda at the time, was of international significance with many Member States actively committing to working towards the goals for a sustainable future. With an initial pro-active global response, it encouraged an underlying concept of international cooperation with no one country accountable for achieving all of the global SDGs.^[20] Considering this however, there is a responsibility for all signing Member States to the 2030 Agenda, to make their own national, state and local policies to inspire innovative change in a collaborative framework.^[21]

III SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS: ANALYSIS ON LAW AND POLICY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A Quality Education (SDG 4)

Education has been fundamental for achieving the goals contained within the sustainable development agenda.^[22] Policies pertaining to the development of ‘quality education’, aims to ‘raise educational quality around the world’.^[23] There is difficulty in defining what quality education is, as there are many different opinions on what educational content is relevant in order to achieve such quality and how it is delivered. Helping define the requirements to achieve a quality education under the 2030 Agenda are the 10 targets which overall aim to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’.^[24]

Education and its connection to sustainable development has previously been considered at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 under the ‘Future We Want’ outcome document under paragraphs 229 to 235.^[25] When interpreting these sections, it provides a general basis of what is considered as quality education, its importance and recognition and the need to adopt ‘good practices in sustainability management... with active participation of students, teachers and local partners’.^[26] Comparative with other SDGs, there is also the common theme of cooperation in order to achieve these goals. This cooperation extends to other SDGs under the 2030 agenda under various theories on educations potential contributions to effectively achieve sustainable development progress and the overall implications on environmental law and policy. ^[27]

1 Quality Education and Sustainable Development

Quality education has been considered to be under a social issue framework that can assist in environmental policy reform.^[28] Other social issues within this social framework are SDGs: 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 11.^[29] There is however, significant overlap between these social issues and other disciplines such as environmental perspectives.^[30] Concluding that although education may be considered as a social issue, its connection to other SDGs is still prevalent, even in other disciplines of research. Take for example, the current planned events for achieving quality education by the United Nations ‘2022 SDGs Learning, Training and Practice’ during July 2022.^[31] The planned event provides ‘related goals’ for SDG 5, 14, 15 and 17, which comprise of a mixture of social and environmental concerns. Quality education in developing countries (Target 4-C) for example, will promote addressing some of these environmental concerns. This is supported by the correlation of data collected by the United Nations in underperforming counties in SDG 4 and the countries performance in other goals in the 2030 Agenda.^[32]

2 Accomplishing Global Quality Education by 2030

To distinctively determine whether SDG 4 will be achieved by the year 2030, it is relevant to consider performing counties in the educational sector and analyse whether underperforming countries can achieve the level required of institutional change in the remaining eight years. The 2021 ‘Sustainable Development Report’, shows no more than 30 countries have achieved the goal of quality education, Finland being one of those countries.^[33] Finland is currently the leading United Nations Member States in achieving the proposed SDGs in the 2030 Agenda, with four of the 17 goals already achieved and eight goals making significant progress towards completion.^[34] As it relates to quality education as a SDG, a policy analysis of Finland’s educational system is relevant to consider including whether the countries culture has influenced their success and to what degree.

There are eight indicators used to determine whether the described SDG 4 has been achieved, and the 10 targets set by the United Nations. These range from primary and secondary education, tertiary educational attainment, Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and performance in science.^[35] The OECD is an international organisation that implements the PISA and ‘works to build... and shape better policies’ that achieve equalities and provide opportunities.^[36] The PISA itself is a programme that tests and measures a 15-year-olds ability in ‘reading, mathematics, science and skills to meet real-life challenges’.^[37] Data collected from this international assessment shows the Finnish educational system as one of the top performers globally in the areas assessed.^[38]

Attributing to the success of the Finnish education system is the legislative policy and administrative structure.^[39] The Basic Education Act 1998 (Finland), enforces a standardised legislative responsibility on its states to provide ‘basic education and compulsory schooling’.^[40] This act governs principles of free education in section 31, student assessment and its objectives in section 22 and inclusivity of disabled students and support services under sections 16 to 18. Educational legislation and policy in Finland, ensure that all administered education from primary to tertiary education is of a high standard by those who have academically performed within a minimum of a master’s degree.^[41] Influencing this success and implementation of educational policy is the philosophies and culture that the country has developed over time.^[42]

Finland’s educational system is clearly well-developed through policy and culture. Drawing from the success of Finland and SDG 4, it provides the question on whether achieving quality education requires this level of standard across the international community. Finland was specifically chosen to draw this distinction between the level of quality needed to complete the 10 targets and whether underperforming countries can meet the standards required before 2030. Comparatively, it is safe to suggest that Finland will outperform most countries in education due to its solid foundation, resources available and cultural progressiveness. However, SDG 4 promotes progress in quality education, not necessarily to the standards of Finland, but rather to encourage development in targeted areas towards higher educational standards and participation in those areas. While Finland’s educational policies can be used as a framework to achieve SDG 4, it needs to be recognised that such a framework requires a solid economy, organisation and time.

There is difficulty in providing an answer for all countries on their legitimacy in successfully completing SDG 4 within the scope of this research, it can be concluded however, that significant progress has been made. This conclusion is on the basis that since 2000, a 91% enrolment rate in developing countries has been achieved in 2015 and the figure representing children out of school has dropped by half.^[43] Although evident progress has been made, within the next eight years, there are still opportunities and challenges to promote SDG 4.

3 Opportunities and Challenges

There are opportunities to learn from established educational frameworks through a comparative policy analysis. When undertaking such an analysis however, it is required to assess the suitability of the policy in different legal and organisational systems. Practically applying foreign laws and policies involves a multidisciplinary approach to allow a full consideration on whether the framework can be successfully adopted.^[44] Take for example, Finland’s educational policies and implemented structure. With high requirements of cooperation between multi-levels of government, the economy required for free education and the imbedded culture surrounding education, it is unlikely that such a system would suit countries without this foundation or at least the resources to achieve these goals. Despite this however, there are still opportunities to learn and develop quality education policies from other countries that have comparable systems and culture.

Comparative policies and implementation may be limited by these means for the reasons previously discussed. There is a greater opportunity however, to encourage an environment that shares learning material and educational services interstate and across borders. With this method, targets 4.A, 4.6, 4.2 and 4.1 would be addressed. It has been discussed that the advancements in information technology and communication will help achieve this goal, with many counties already implementing educational policies and materials that would help achieve quality education.^[45]

4 Recommendations and Policy

There still remains policy challenges and access to education barries in developing countries that would be difficult to solve by the opportunities mentioned above. There needs to be research and understanding for how certain policies can be adapted for developing countries to support a foundation for future policy with a flexible educational framework.^[46] Sharing resources promoting knowledge sharing, funding or even policy assistance in developed countries that already have a near completed or completed quality education under the SDG would help close the gap in quality education and there should be greater cooperation in helping other United Nations Member States to achieve this goal. Otherwise, achieving quality education in developing countries will require more time than the eight years remaining.

B Climate Action (SDG 13)

Perhaps one of the most recognisable SDGs, climate action, calls for urgent action in combatting environmentally harming behaviours and processes causing greenhouse gas emissions.^[47] Contributing to the increase of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities involves burning fossil fuels increasing CO₂ levels, consumption of energy and deforestation.^[48] Science concludes that these behaviours are raising ocean levels and atmospheric temperatures.^[49] These concerns are not limited to any one issue. Research reports suggest that raising temperatures are increasing the acidity of ocean water and increasing the severity of natural disasters.^[50] Environmental law addressing international climate change policies is relatively new compared to early science researching these environmental concerns in the mid-20^th century.^[51] This could suggest that law and policy is currently behind current science and what is required to sufficiently address the climate issue.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (‘UNFCCC’), introduced various international agreements (Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement) with an objective similar to the 2030 Agenda under SDG 13. That objective being to ‘stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations’ and to lower the raising global temperature to a target of 1.5^oC and below.^[52] Although this target was considered to be one that could not be met based on current international and domestic policies,^[53] it did encourage a development for new initiatives to be implemented for renewable energies (SDG 7) and to start a movement for a cultural change.^[54]

1 Climate Action and Sustainable Development

Although the scope of this research is the focus on international policy relating to the SDGs, goal 13 provides a unique challenge because of its connectivity to many other disciplines in science, law, social studies and economics. Supporting this concept is not only the environmental impacts associated with climate change, but also its connection to human-wellbeing.^[55] Interactions between climate action has been previously associated with SDGs: 1 (no poverty), 2 (zero hunger), 6 (clean water and sanitation), 7 (affordable and clean energy), 14 (life below water) and 15 (life on land).^[56] Identifying these interactions provide an avenue for developing sustainable development policy frameworks that can be utilised for efficiency in achieving the SDGs. For example, climate action and life on land has been previously identified as an interaction due to deforestation, increased severity of natural disasters and raising global temperatures.^[57]

A case study synergising the climate action SDG and the UNFCCC policy on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries was undertaken in 2017.^[58] The research concluded that the synergy between climate action and life on land required more attention because of its close interactions and that policies should be framed based on these interactions.^[59]

2 International Sustainable Development Policy: Climate Action

Apart of developing sustainable development policies to achieve climate action requires addressing the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. A global report in 2010, concluded that there are five areas contributing up to 90% of total emissions.^[60] These areas reflect the agriculture, building, electricity, industry and transport sectors.^[61] Narrowing the main greenhouse gas contributors to five industries does provide policy makers a starting point to address major climate change actions and their targets. It should be noted that although there are only five main contributors, these industries make up the world we know today. Changing current establishments and policies that have historically evolved to reflect the economic and legal interests of the individual and state, proposes a significant challenge. Economics and policy have been previously considered in relation to this challenge (both for individuals and corporate) in an attempt to limit carbon emissions, not only for its current influence on business practices but also the future consequences of no action.^[62] It is therefore, required that policy in climate-action focuses on current economic structures, societal culture and attitude, resources and adaptability.^[63]

Determining the effectiveness of international and domestic policy changes for climate action involves many different approaches in various disciplines. This is why goal 17: partnerships for the SDGs cannot be underestimated. Even with the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, current policy responses have had limited impact on addressing the goals under those international climate change agreements.^[64] What the protocol and agreement did achieve however, was international attention towards addressing the issue of climate change.^[65] This arguably has created a foundational cultural shift in an individual’s attitude towards the targets of the SDG and the support for policy change. In supporting policy change however, there are various contributors both limiting and supporting sufficient progress. One of which is early and quality education, the delivery of information and its methods and the time taken to draft and implement policy.^[66] All elements reflect some form of reliance on the concept of government accountability and political attention. Without which, policies will not be addressed nor implemented.

Exemplifying a success of environmental policy change in reducing greenhouse gas emissions is Germany, with a total reduction of 26% in emissions from 1990 to 2009.^[67] The statistics between this time period measure the carbon dioxide levels in the five main contributing industries previously mentioned. Even with such a reduction it has been evaluated that such reductions in emissions still fall short of the internationally agreed targets.^[68] However, there still remains an opportunity in comparative analysis to learn from countries and their policies for efficiency and to increase the chances ‘working policy’.

Early policies in the area of renewable energy, waste regulations and economic transformation policies account for 68% of the country’s total reduction.^[69] More recently, the German Federal Climate Change Act 2019 (Cth), legalises Germany’s domestic responsibilities under the Paris Agreement up to the year 2030 (was previously 2045 prior to an unconstitutional ruling by their highest court). The policies reflected significant changes and contributions to research and education in the areas of renewable energies (and their Renewable Energy Act 2000),^[70] and their structural changes and advocacy due to a cultural shift requiring greater political attention in the 1980’s.^[71]

3 Opportunities and Challenges

The previously discussed SDG ‘quality education’, reflects Germany’s successful implementation of the SDG to encourage renewable energy policies. There has been an evident cultural shift and attitude change towards the importance of climate action. This is both an opportunity to learn and a challenge to achieve, as cultural adjustment is difficult to change in short periods of time.^[72] This opportunity however, is heavily influenced by the intrinsic motivations of the individual of the general public, corporations and in politics.^[73] It will therefore be a challenge to encourage policy changes on a multi-level approach without a display of intrinsic motivation and without education in the area of sustainability. This reinforces perhaps the greatest challenge in implementing sustainable development policy in the area of climate change, the scale of the problem.

With goal 13 being related and associated with many other SDGs, it provides an advantage in addressing climate issues and other areas systematically, however, if this goal is not specifically targeted as displayed in the German case study (and to a higher degree), counties will not be taking full advantage of the connection between climate action and other sustainable development targets. For these reasons and the challenge not being fully addressed, SDG 13 will not be achieved by 2030 for most UN Member States.

4 Recommendations and Policy

Recommending changes in policy in the educational sector to include environmental and sustainable development education, will encourage awareness of the scale of the climate action required and the consequences if the targets are not achieved. This may also increase the levels of intrinsic motivations at the individual level to encourage policy change and make it a talking point in political conversation. Early education is a long-term goal however, to encourage short-term action, political accountability, solar energy targets, greater corporate responsibilities (including a requirement for sustainable development initiatives) and a reduction in mining and investments will lead to and increase the chances of addressing SDG 13. This has an opportunity to be addressed through legislation with greater corporate responsibilities with greater requirements for detailed sustainable development plans.

C Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7)

Affordable and clean energy has been briefly touched upon with the other SDGs previously discussed either directly or through means of policy recommendations. The importance of such a goal and why it was chosen for this research, it is applicability to address the five main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Those being electricity and heat production (25% global contribution) and industry (21% global contribution).^[74] Clean energy itself will not effectively reduce the total contributions of greenhouse gas, however, policy mandating an increase in clean energy production will have positive influences on climate action and its related SDGs. Mentioned throughout the field of sustainable development is the interconnectivity of the goals in relation to environmental health and human-wellbeing.^[75] The same principles apply to affordable and clean energy and the related connection to, energy access, social and economic development, energy security and climate change mitigation and the associated environmental health impacts.^[76] This areas is of importance due to a growing population and the consistently developing requirements for new technology and power consumption.^[77]

1 Affordable and Clean Energy: Connection to other Sustainable Development Goals

Avenues of sustainability and clean energy has its influences in other fields of sustainable development, both in quality of life and environmental sectors. Of particular relevance is the SDGs 13 (climate action), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 11 (sustainable cities and communities).^[78] The connection of clean energy on other sustainable development sectors is not strictly limited to these goals. Policy changes for energy consumption branches out to food production (vertical farming and heat production for cooking for example) and industry innovations (SDG 9).^[79] Comparative with other SDGs, the interlinkages between the targets of each goal can be influenced by the availability and production of clean energy. This influence has been concluded to be mostly positive when weighing up the negatives of the SDG (based on policy influences when achieving the targets of the goal).^[80]

2 International Affordable and Clean Energy: Transition into Renewable Energy

The sustainable consumption of energy in Australia has been heavily influenced by the mining industry, with large contributions of resources going towards non-renewable energies.^[81] There has slowly been a cultural shift however, in how Australians view climate action and its linkages to how energy is produced.^[82] Renewable energies are expected to be a dominant feature in how Australians consume energy.^[83] Despite this cultural shift, Australia has ‘major challenges remaining’ in addressing the SDG in accordance with the indicators set by the United Nations.^[84] This is partly contributed to Australia’s CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion and the increased production to supply non-renewable energies overseas.^[85] The mining industry will continue to be relevant until Australia and other counties start to rely on renewables. In an attempt to address these concerns with energy, Australia has undertaken 105 projects (primarily renewable energy farms) to provide accessible renewable energy by utilising rural land.^[86] The importance of utilising rural and urban sectors to produce renewable energy is that it provides an opportunity to share large amounts of energy that can be transferred across distances.^[87]

Policies that cover building sustainable energy infrastructures that Australia is currently undertaking has practicality in other countries. Utilising energy infrastructures that Australia is currently constructing provides an opportunity to reduce investments in the mining industry and promotes policies that focus on sharing renewable energy.^[88] The World Bank has investigated the opportunity for African countries for example, to utilise their own electrical energy resources that has the potential to provide sufficient power, reducing the need for non-renewable energy.^[89] Political representatives in Africa has supported this conclusion, but has provided that most countries lack the resources to develop the means to effectively transfer this energy as seen in Australia.^[90] Despite these limitations on Sub-Saharan Africa’s energy supplies, its renewable energy capacity is expected to triple by 2030.^[91] Comparative analysis provides that Australia’s scalability of renewable energy farms and the transferability across distances will need to be reconsidered for areas without this capability. Policy in Africa’s renewable energy supplies would benefit on a new approach targeting smaller-scaled approaches in the form of ‘solar photo-voltaic mini-grids’.^[92]

3 Opportunities and Challenges

Affordance and clean energy policy provides an opportunity for renewable energy development. This subsequently reduces the reliability that most countries currently have on non-renewable energy contributing to high levels of CO₂ emissions. With 60% of energy contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and with three billion people relying on ‘polluting and unhealthy fuels for cooking’,^[93] renewable energies have the power to be able to address these major issues. Environmental concerns in relation to renewable energies are of course, significant as it relates to achieving sustainability goals, however, there are also societal advantages involving: job opportunities, increased knowledge of energy sustainability, stabilisation of energy prices (as compared to non-renewables) and producing more sustainable cities and communities.^[94] These policies will allow large and smaller communities a reliable energy source that contributes less to the overall greenhouse gas emissions.

Clean renewable energies and their policies provide an opportunity to solve the issues presented above. There still remains challenges in successfully implementing these policies, primarily in developing countries. The technical challenges of producing large renewable energy farms with maintenance and the knowledge required to do so, will require cooperation between multi-levels of government and international attention. There are also cost considerations that provide a barrier for proper implementation of working policies.

4 Recommendations and Policy

According to the United Nations Sustainable Development Report, Africa has major challenges remaining in achieving SDG 7.^[95] There are benefits for all countries in environmental health to support the development of new policy focusing on small-scaled implementation of renewable energy farms. Africa and the World Bank has reported that this can be achieved with new resources.^[96] What can be determined from the African case study is that developing counties produce a large amount of non-renewable energy due to the lack of resources to establish renewable energy farms resulting in environmentally damaging energy practices. It is recommended that: developed countries provide economic and resource assistance to help establish African countries development of renewable energy and that Australia’s and other countries dependence on economic gain from mining practices be transferred to renewable practices.

IV CONCLUSION

Sustainable development has international recognition and performance indicators that have helped guide national and state policies in creating new partnerships working towards improving environmental and human health. The United Nations SDGs, provide avenues to take advantage of the interconnectivity of the performance indicators and targets provided under each goal. This paper has reflected current working policies of leading nations and attempted to undertake a comparative review on whether such policies can be implemented in underperforming countries in the next eight years remaining of the 2030 Agenda. These policies pertained to SDGs, quality education, climate action and affordable and clean energy. Each SDG was concluded to have primarily positive connections and influences on other SDG targets. In conducting this analysis, it provided an avenue to properly analyse working policies and their effectiveness in those areas and provided a way to reality test those policies to other countries.

Based on this analysis, it was concluded that each goal will not be achieved in the next eight years due to the complexity of developing working policies and the challenges that underperforming countries face when trying to achieve these goals. Most opportunities discussed above require some form of cooperation to help achieve these goals. This cooperation was categorised as an opportunity to better achieve working partnerships (SDG 17). This conclusion is on the basis that underperforming countries simply do not have the resources or information available to achieve the policies required under the SDGs.

This research has reflected the significance of environmental and sustainable development policy, however, without implementation of the recommendations provided under each goal, it has been concluded that further research should be conducted on how to improve upon the cooperation requirements needed to achieve the United Nation SDGs.

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^[1] Sandra Casadevall, ‘Sustainable Development: Meaning, history, principles, pillars, and implications for human action: Literature review’ (2019) 5 Cogent Social Sciences 1.

^[2] Neil Powe, ‘Sustainable development, sustainably and research’ (2020) 63(9) Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 1523.

^[3] Casadevall (n 1) 5.

^[4] See generally, United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework, International Guidance (Report, June 2019) <https://unsdg.un.org/sites/default/files/2019-10/UN-Cooperation-Framework-Internal-Guidance-Final-June-2019_1.pdf?>.

^[5] United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs (Sustainable Development) (Webpage, 12 April 2022) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals>.

^[6] Ibid.

^[7] United Nations: Conferences | Environment and Sustainable Development (Webpage, 13 April 2022) <https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992>.

^[8] United Nations (n 5).

^[9] United Nations Sustainable Development: United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janerio, Brazil (‘Agenda 21’) (Report, 3 to 14 June 1992) <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf>.

^[10] United Nations (n 5).

^[11] Jan Bebbington and Jeffrey Unerman, ‘Achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals: An enabling role for accounting research’ (2018) 31(1) Accounting Auditing & Accountability Journal 2.

^[12] Ibid.

^[13] Simon Dalby, Susan Horton and Rhianne Mahon, Achieving the sustainable development goals: global governance challenges (Routledge, 2019) 12.

^[14] Ibid.

^[15] United Nations (n 5).

^[16] Dalby, Horton and Mahon (n 13) 1.

^[17] Jennifer Calkins, ‘Paris when it sizzles, What Agenda 21 can tell us about the likely success of the Paris Agreement’ (2018) 27(2) Washington International Law Journal 523.

^[18] United Nations, Sustainable Development (Report, 2021) <https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/rankings>.

^[19] Ibid.

^[20] Manohar Pawar, Dominic O’Sullivan and Belinda Cash, ‘The Sustainable Development Goals: An Australian Response’ (2021) 2(4) The International Journal of Community and Social Development 1.

^[21] Enayat Moallemi et al, ‘Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals Requires Transdisciplinary Innovation at the Local Scale’ (2020) 3(3) One Earth 300.

^[22] United Nations (n 5) <https://sdgs.un.org/topics/education>.

^[23] Ellen Boeren, ‘Understanding Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 on “Quality Education” from micro, meso and macro perspectives’ (2019) 65 International Review of Education 278.

^[24] Sustainable Development Goal 4, The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Report, 2015).

^[25] United Nations, ‘Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform’ Future We Want (Outcome Document, 2012) 229-235 <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/futurewewant.html>.

^[26] Ibid 234.

^[27] Boeren (n 23) 279.

^[28] Lars Niklasson, Improving the Sustainable Development Goals: Strategies and the Governance Challenge (Taylor and Francis Group, 2019) 13.

^[29] Ibid.

^[30] Rebecca Brock et al, ‘Towards understanding interactions between Sustainable Development Goals: the role of environment – human linkages’ (2020) 15 Springer 1576.

^[31] United Nations (n 5) <https://sdgs.un.org/topics/education>.

^[32] Sustainable Development Report (n 18).

^[33] Ibid <https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/map/goals/SDG4>.

^[34] Ibid.

^[35] Ibid.

^[36] OECD, (Webpage, 17 February 2022) <https://www.oecd.org/about/>.

^[37] OECD, Programme for International Student Assessment (Webpage, 17 February 2022) <https://www.oecd.org/pisa/>.

^[38] Ali Eryilmaz and Ulas Ustun, ‘Analysis of Finnish Educational System to question the reasons behind Finnish success in PISA’ (2018) 2(2) Studies in Educational Research and Development 94

^[39] Ibid 98.

^[40] Basic Education Act 1998 (Finland) s 1.

^[41] Ashok Federick, ‘Finland Education System’ (2020) 2(2) International Journal of Science and Society 23.

^[42] Ibid.

^[43] United Nations Development Programme, Oslo Governance Centre: Sustainable Development Goals (Webpage, 2022) < https://www1.undp.org/content/oslo-governance-centre/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html>.

^[44] Pier Monateri, Methods of Comparative Law (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2012) 68.

^[45] Aaron Benavot, ‘Policies towards educational policies and student learning: constructing a critical perspective’ (2012) 25(1) The European Journal of Social Science Research 67.

^[46] Ibid.

^[47] United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division < https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2021/goal-13/>.

^[48] Raul Cassia, ‘Climate Change and the Impact of Greenhouse Gasses: CO2 and NO, Friends and Foes of Plant Oxidative Stress’ (2018) 9 Frontiers in Plant Science 2.

^[49] Margaret Grossman, ‘Climate Change and the Individual’ (2018) 66 The American Journal of Comparative Law 345.

^[50] Ibid 346.

^[51] Richard Somerville et al, Historical Overview of Climate Change Science (Cambridge University Press, 2007) 101.

^[52] Takeshi Kuramochi et al, ‘The Paris Agreement: resolving the inconsistency between global goals and national contributions’ (2017) 17(1) Taylor & Francis 19.

^[53] Ibid.

^[54] Ibid 23-24.

^[55] Brock et al (n 30) 1576.

^[56] Ibid.

^[57] Mairon Lima et al, ‘The Sustainable Development Goals and REDD+: assessing institutional interactions and the pursuit of synergies’ (2017) 17(4) Springer 589.

^[58] Ibid.

^[59] Ibid 602-603.

^[60] OECD, Climate Action (Webpage, 19 April 2022) < https://www.oecd.org/stories/climate-25-actions/>.

^[61] Ibid.

^[62] Robert Pindyck, ‘Climate Change Policy: What do the Models tell us?’ (2013) 51(3) Journal of Economic Literature 860.

^[63] Dieter Helm, ‘Climate-change policy: why has so little been achieved’ (2008) 24(2) Oxford University Press 213-214.

^[64] Ibid 211.

^[65] Kuramochi et al (n 52) 23-24.

^[66] Ibid 213.

^[67] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data for the Period 1990-2009 (Report, 2011) 15.

^[68] Roger Karapin, ‘Explaining Success and Failure in Climate Policies: Developing Theory through German Case Studies’ (2012) 45(1) Comparative Policies in City University of New York 51.

^[69] Ibid 52.

^[70] Ibid 55-56.

^[71] Ibid 59-60.

^[72] Jeremy Brooks et al, ‘Applying cultural evolution to sustainability challenges: an introduction to the special issue’ (2018) 13(1-8) Springer 2.

^[73] Ellen van der Werff, Linda Steg and Kees Keizer, ‘It is a moral issue: The relationship between environmental self-identity, obligation-based intrinsic motivation and pro-environmental behaviour’ (2013) 23(5) Elsevier 1258.

^[74] OECD (n 60).

^[75] United Nations (n 5).

^[76] Phebe Owusu and Samuel Asumadu-Sarkodie, ‘A review of renewable energy sources, sustainability issues and climate change mitigation’ (2016) 3(1) Cogent Engineering 1.

^[77] Ibid 2.

^[78] Brock et al (n 30).

^[79] Ibid 1580.

^[80] David McCollum et al, ‘Connecting the sustainable development goals by their energy inter-linkages’ (2018) 13(3) Environmental Research Letters 6-8.

^[81] Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (Report March 2021) <https://publications.industry.gov.au/publications/resourcesandenergquarterlymarch2021/documents/Resources-and-Energy-Quarterly-March-2021.pdf>.

^[82] The Climate Institute, Australian attitudes on Climate Change (Report, 2017) <https://australiainstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/2017-Climate-of-the-Nation-web.pdf>.

^[83] Ibid 6-7.

^[84] Sustainable Development Report: SDG 7 Affordable and Clean Energy Australia (2022) <https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/map/goals/SDG7>

^[85] Ibid.

^[86] Clean Energy Council, ‘Renewable Energy Generation Projects’ (2021) <https://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/resources/project-tracker>.

^[87] Emilia Motoasca, Energy and Sustainability in Built and Urban Environments (Springer, 1^st ed, 2019) 93.

^[88] United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs (n 5) < https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal7>.

^[89] The World Bank, Leveraging the Power of Energy to Light up Africa (Report, 2021).

^[90] Ibid.

^[91] Velma Mukoro, Maria Sharmina and Alejandro Gallego-Schmid, ‘A review of business models for access to affordable and clean energy in Africa: Do they deliver social, economic and environmental value?’ (2022) 88 Energy Research and Social Science 1.

^[92] Ibid 10.

^[93] United Nations (n 88).

^[94] Ali Al-Shetwi, ‘Sustainable development of renewable energy integrated power sector: Trends, environmental impact, and recent challenges’ (2022) 822 Elsevier B.V 3.

^[95] United Nations: Sustainable Development Report (n 18).

^[96] The World Bank (n 89).