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University of New South Wales Law Journal Student Series |
With the emergence of the United Nations (“UN”) Sustainable Development Goals (“SDGs”) in 2015, Singapore as a UN member state is obliged to do its part by meeting the targets set out in each of the 17 SDGs by 2030.
I will be placing particular emphasis on SDGs 4, 5, and 6 on education, gender equality, and water respectively. Part I examines how near or far Singapore is to meeting target 4.1 which aims for all boys and girls to complete free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education.[1] Part II shines light on target 5.5 to understand whether women in Singapore are fully and effectively participating at all levels of decision-making in political, economic, and public life.[2] Lastly, part III uncovers Singapore’s progress in target 6.3—wastewater treatment and the improvement of water quality through the reduction of pollution, dumping, and release of chemicals and materials.[3] I will also explore how SDGs 4, 5, and 6 intersect and are closely related to one another.
While Singapore has made decent progress in the aforementioned three SDGs, we should not rest on our laurels. There are ample opportunities for the nation to make leaps in sustainable development through the implementation or refining of law and policy to execute on the SDGs over the next eight years.
The Compulsory Education Act[5] stipulates that Singaporeans born after 1 January 1996 who are residing locally must attend a national primary school after turning six and complete six years of primary education before reaching 15 unless an exemption has been granted. Exemptions include homeschooling and disability reasons (i.e. if the individual is deemed unable to attend a local primary school as a result of disabilities whether physical, intellectual, or developmental).[6]
Failing which, parents of the child “shall be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding $5,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 12 months or to both.”[7]
In 2020, 96.6 per cent of students passed English in the Primary School Leaving Examination (“PSLE”).[8] In the same year, 84.9 per cent of the same batch of students passed Mathematics in the PSLE.[9] This indicates that an overwhelming majority have achieved proficiency in reading and mathematics by the end of primary school, allowing 98.4 per cent of the cohort to progress to secondary school.[10]
Singapore achieved a 99.9 per cent enrolment rate for primary schools in 2019, up by 0.1 per cent from the previous year.[11] It is evident that the Compulsory Education Act[12] has proven successful in ensuring that Singaporeans receive a fundamental level of understanding in English, Mathematics, and Science to propel them forward to the next phase of their educational journey. This is further evidenced by the Gender Parity Index of 1 for primary and secondary school students in 2019.[13] This means that girls’ enrolment in primary and secondary school is at par with boys’ enrolment, signalling that no gender is left behind in our pursuit of educating young minds.
However, mandatory education in Singapore stops at primary school. Secondary school education and beyond is optional, though many opt to further their studies either locally or abroad. The enrolment rate for national secondary schools was 99.7 per cent in 2019.[14] While still a sizeable amount, not all who enrol end up graduating from secondary school. 0.6 per cent among those enrolled in 2019 did not make it to the finish line, with no sign of improvement in 2020.[15]
To bring the secondary school completion rate to a full hundred, the government should expand compulsory education to encompass secondary school. This ensures that students are equipped with a stronger academic foundation which would eventually provide more career pathways for them in future. Some students from financially strapped backgrounds without much parental support (for instance, if one or both parents are disabled, ill, or unable to work) may feel compelled to drop out of school to channel their focus towards supporting the family financially through work. This may lead them to drop out of secondary school midway to fulfill their obligations as a son/daughter.
While the act of supporting a family through hardships would fall within the realm of social services, making secondary education compulsory prevents young individuals from working full-time at a tender age unless their dire circumstances leave them with no choice. Students who earned an additional educational credential following the completion of secondary school generally have more opportunities than their counterparts who did not. Having a more educated workforce starts from education through the inclusion of mandatory secondary school education for all Singaporeans residing in the country.
It is also imperative that school fees are kept to a minimum to remove the barrier to entry. Singaporeans need not fork out a single cent for school fees should they matriculate at a government primary school. The fee increases to $5 per month for Singaporean students attending government secondary schools.[16] Singapore will meet the target of ensuring that “all boys and girls complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary school education”[17] by 2030 when secondary school education is made compulsory, and consequently, the school fees for secondary schools mirror that of primary schools.
This is not to say that the quality of education will be compromised with less public funds directed towards government schools in the form of school fees. “Government schools offer high quality education such as unique electives, applied subjects and student development programmes at standardised fees.”[18] While attending a local school in Singapore is not entirely free, government subsidies through financial aid schemes provide assistance to students from lower-income households, thereby making sure that quality education is not a privilege that a select few in the population are entitled to. A child should not be deprived of a bright future in which education is one of the core building blocks necessary to pave one’s path, merely because of the family they were born into. Keeping school miscellaneous fees affordable would allow the education sector to strike a balance between providing access and investing resources to holistically improve students’ quality of education.
Continuing to charge a nominal sum for miscellaneous fees gives parents and students alike a sense of ownership and reminder to not take quality education for granted. Furthermore, schools have overhead costs and operating expenses to take care of. It would be unrealistic to force the government to absorb the full cost of putting every Singaporean child through primary and secondary school. The responsibility of financing a child’s education needs to be shared between the government and parents/guardians. Reducing school fees to zero for all government secondary schools in parallel with making secondary school mandatory would advance Singapore’s agenda of promoting learning opportunities for all, regardless of gender.
In a world where women make up nearly half (49.58 per cent) the population,[20] women are still struggling to have an equal say in boardrooms, parliaments, and elsewhere in many industries still dominated by men. “[W]omen are underrepresented at all levels of decision-making worldwide, and achieving gender parity in political life is far off.”[21]
Since 1960, the world has seen a mere 63 countries with women at the highest position of executive power.[22] This amounts to an average of 1 additional country with a female in charge with each passing year. Although the fastest and most significant growth took place in the past 12 years[23], progress in gender equality at the world stage is excruciatingly slow. “Just 10 countries have a woman Head of State, and 13 countries have a woman Head of Government.”[24] It is seemingly obvious that positions of power at the global level are still largely held by men. The United Nations (“UN”) has reported that at the rate we are advancing, “gender equality in the highest positions of power will not be reached for another 130 years.”[25]
The recent Global Gender Gap Report ranked Singapore 54th in the Global Gender Gap Index for 2021.[26] This puts Singapore in the top one-third of countries closing the gender gap. Though Singapore contributes to one of 26 women globally serving as Head of State[27] with the appointment of President Halimah Yacob in 2017[28], only 29.5 per cent of seats in parliament are held by women after Singapore’s 2020 General Election.[29] This leaves Singapore in a modest position, having been ranked 72nd in political empowerment.[30],
This pales in comparison to the 50 per cent we need to attain equal representation in parliament. While setting a quota for the percentage of women in parliament might seem like an obvious fix to narrowing the gender representation gap, it is of paramount importance that women are chosen for their expertise, abilities, and potential contributions for improving the status quo instead of the basis of gender alone. That said, nothing is stopping men from encouraging females in the community to serve as a political leader. Men currently wield enormous political influence which they should leverage to bring more women on board politics. “Given the lack of women in Singapore politics, the improved female representation is in itself a significant step forward...as the younger generation turns to these politicians as role models and inspirations to further crack the glass ceiling.”[31]
As a society, we need to seek new ways to level the playing field. This could take shape in the form of gender equality campaigns to normalise the concept before weaving it into local culture, better parental benefits such as a longer paternity leave for fathers to play a more active role in caring for their child(ren), and encouraging men to take on their fair share of unpaid work including domestic duties.
At present, working Singaporean men are entitled to two weeks of paid paternity leave should they meet set criteria stipulated by the government.[32] The Employment, Parental Leave and Other Measures Act[33] ought to provide for a minimum of 16 weeks of paid paternity leave for working men residing in Singapore. Granting and utilising paternity leave benefits everyone—the partner, child, company, and society. A McKinsey survey reported that “[p]arenting together in the first days, weeks, or months of a child’s life is instrumental in shaping family dynamics”.[34] Furthermore, “[p]aternity leave also allows fathers to set the foundation for a more equal distribution of responsibilities in the future”.[35] This includes the decisions parents jointly make about allocating resources to childcare, domestic work, and their careers in the later years of their child’s life.[36] Parental leave sets the stage for a more equal distribution of labour at home, in turn minimising women’s time spent on unpaid work such as doing the laundry and dishes.
Without a paradigm shift in household responsibilities, we will consistently fall back on gender norms and assumptions that women are less capable than men or that their time is valued less than men’s. This is reflected in the gender pay gap where full-time female employees in Singapore aged 25 to 54 earned 14.4 per cent lower than their male counterparts in 2020.[37] This means that for every dollar a man in Singapore earns, a woman based in the same country with the same qualifications and skills earn a mere 85.6 cents.[38]
Among the world’s 100 most powerful women, the vast majority are of European descent and reside in western countries. This encompasses Australia, France, Germany, Great Britain, New Zealand, and the United States.[39] Some also rose to the top after inheriting their father’s or ex-husband’s wealth and/or power. Regardless, it cannot be denied that going through the list makes one awestruck at the sheer amount of determination, grit, and intelligence necessary to be a trailblazer.
The first and only Singaporean to make the list of world’s 100 most powerful women is Ho Ching, at number 33.[40] She earned her spot through numerous achievements, one of them being the growth of the portfolio of Singaporean sovereign wealth fund and global investment company, Temasek, to over $313 billion while at the helm for 17 years.[41] Apart from having served as Temasek’s CEO, she is also the wife of Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong.
For women to aspire to be at the top and have a seat at the leadership table, we first need females to participate by joining the workforce. Last year, the female labour force participation rate in Singapore was just 64.2 per cent.[42] While the rate has been steadily increasing in the last 10 years by slightly over 10 per cent[43], there are still more men in the workforce. In the same time period (2021), the male labour force participation rate in Singapore was 77.2 per cent.[44] To bridge the gap of 13 per cent between genders, more needs to be done to ensure that women need not make the tough decision of choosing between their career and family.
Many women choose to give up their careers in an attempt to spend more time with their children and raise them full-time. With their male partners earning more, there is often a compelling reason for them to stay home if they believe their financial contribution to the family is not substantial and the benefits of staying home with the child(ren) outweighs the costs of childcare. “The cost of [childcare] is often the main reason women leave the workplace.”[45]
To improve the labour participation rate among women, Singapore needs to take into account women’s “battle with time to fulfil multiple roles and responsibilities”[46] both at home and at work. Where possible and if the work can be done remotely, employers should grant employees (especially working parents and caregivers) the flexibility of working from home to meet the competing priorities of family and/or personal commitments. Additionally, Singapore should cement their commitment of building fairer and more progressive working environments by transforming the Tripartite Standards, which currently exist as “a set of good employment practices that all employers should implement at their workplaces”[47] into employment law. Making the Tripartite Standards mandatory to adopt through the formalisation of it will encourage employers to think beyond existing measures to support their employees from all walks of life.
Working women need to be in a leadership position to have their voices heard. Of all the CEOs in Singapore, 13.1 per cent are women.[48] While still a far cry from achieving parity in the top leadership position, this is the highest percentage of female CEOs recorded globally.[49] Singapore’s female board representation was at 17.6 per cent in 2021, of which 6 per cent of board chairs are women.[50] At the mid-level, women in Singapore now make up 45.6 per cent of professionals, managers, executives, and technicians.[51] This brings Singapore to position number 33 worldwide for Economic Participation and Opportunity in 2021.[52]
Not all is bleak for women lest we lose sight of hope. In the educational sector, women are primarily the leaders. From primary school to pre-university in Singapore, 61 per cent of principals are females.[53] In the same year (2020), women comprised 58 per cent of vice-principals.[54]
For a world to be truly equal, women would lead 50 per cent of countries and run 50 per cent of companies while 50 per cent of men become stay-at-home fathers. It goes without saying that a lot more needs to be done to make Singapore a more gender equal country to empower women and girls. This can be achieved through the provision of equal opportunities for leadership at all levels and women’s full and active participation in political, economic, and public life. “With less than a decade to [fulfil] the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, gender equality is fundamental to delivering on the promises of sustainability, peace, and human progress.”[55]
Singapore, a city-state with limited water resources relies on the National Environment Agency to regulate water pollution and quality in the sewerage system, inland water bodies, and coastal areas.[57] Given that the nation’s public sewerage system has a wide reach for it serves all industrial estates and nearly all residences, the Public Utilities Board (“PUB”) regulates the sewerage system alongside the treatment and discharge of industrial wastewater into public sewers.[58] Having a government agency oversee the processing of untreated water into quality water suitable for consumption ensures that water, a finite resource, is carefully utilised and protected in Singapore.
The Environmental Protection and Management Act[59] provides strict guidelines to prevent and/or control water pollution in Singapore. This includes “[p]enalties for discharging toxic substances or hazardous substances into inland waters”[60] and “the removal and cleaning up of toxic substance or trade effluent, oil, chemical, sewage, hazardous substance or other polluting matters”.[61] Enforcing legal consequences for actions that would harm the lives of many individuals, species, aquatic animals, and the environment is a vital move to inhibit bad behaviour.
Water recycling is understood to be “the most sustainable and cost-effective way” of increasing Singapore’s water supply.[62] The outcome of water recycling in Singapore is named ‘NEWater’, which is produced from the processing of treated used water to generate “ultra-clean, high-grade reclaimed water”.[63] On Singapore shores, [u]sed water from both domestic and non-domestic sources is treated at four water reclamation plants.”[64] The establishment of a sustainable approach to water treatment and recycling has allowed Singapore to plan ahead for water supply during dry seasons without worrying about water deficiency during trying times.
NEWater is audited biannually through stringent checks by external experts in engineering, water chemistry, toxicology, and microbiology hailing from far and wide.[65] Thankfully, “[t]his high-grade reclaimed water has consistently been awarded top marks for the high quality, safety and for exceeding international standards.”[66]
Through the Environmental Public Health Act, [67] water is deemed suitable for drinking if it is “unpolluted and wholesome.”[68] Only water that meets the quality, purity, and general appearance requirements set forth by the Environmental Public Health Regulations[69] is safe for consumption. Water that contains any substance or organism at a concentrated amount which carries with it the potential threat of harming human health[70] will be rejected. This gives Singaporeans the confidence that water flowing from their taps at home has passed through rigorous tests and is safe for everyday use.
Water is valuable to all for a multitude of functions and reasons, more so for a country like Singapore with limited water resources. It is crucial that we do not take water for granted as “our water supply remains vulnerable to factors such as climate change.”[71] Singapore needs to continually search for and implement innovative ideas to preserve water (such as harvesting rainwater) as the country will be easily susceptible to water scarcity when demand exceeds supply.
Sound judgment and good planning at the national level prevents future generations from needing to ration water in their lifetime. Children in Singapore are able to concentrate in school when they need not worry about fetching water, thereby making it easier for them to focus on school and minimally complete their primary and secondary education.
With the continuation of treating domestic and industrial wastewater coupled with proper pollution control, Singapore is well on its way to enhancing water quality to provide the local population with reliable and safe drinkable water in the face of climate change.
“In this Anthropocene age, humans are responsible for environmental catastrophes.”[72] The SDGs serve as guiding principles primarily motivating governments globally to spring to action on reducing inequalities and before it is too late to undo the environmental damages caused by humans, leaving children of tomorrow to suffer the consequences of our selfish actions.
SDG 6 in particular, has been successful in pushing Singapore towards leveraging and putting into practice “the foundational principles of international water law in a sustainable manner”.[73] Without many years of thoughtful planning by the local government, Singapore’s water security would be threatened if we do not adequately meet our growing water needs and demands.
Given that “[w]ater conservation will continue to become more important to local governments as time progresses...due to overdevelopment and climate change”,[74] “it is crucial that laws must be effectively implemented and enforced”.[75]
Apart from thinking critically about sustainable development in terms of water, we also must play an active role in ensuring that “all Singapore women have greater access to opportunities, and more equal partnerships with men”.[76] Without women’s full participation across all levels of decision making, society loses out on one half of the population’s ideas and opinions. The world is better off when both males and females are treated and represented equally in society, business, and politics. Singapore has long ways to go for local women to be granted the same opportunities as their male counterparts, let alone closing the gender wage gap. SDG 5 serves as a poignant reminder that we have yet to empower all women and girls.
“Only by ensuring the rights of women and girls across all the goals will we get to justice and inclusion, economies that work for all, and sustaining our shared environment now and for future generations.”[77]
Above all, an educated and informed society is bred from quality education accessible to the masses. Singapore has made considerable progress maintaining a low cost of public education while striking a balance with equality to prepare young individuals for potential careers in the public and private sectors.
The responsibility of sending a child to school should not fall squarely on the government’s shoulders. “Parents and the community also play a crucial role in the holistic education of our students”.[78] Everyone ought to join forces to create a healthy environment for children where learning takes places within and outside classrooms.
Quality education is a long-term investment for our present and future. SDG 4 is a wake-up call for Singapore to relook the Compulsory Education Act[79] else more inequalities will surface and greater societal issues could be on the horizon.
The UN SDGs provide structural support to Singapore’s progressive development through the years. Now more than ever, Singapore needs “a good government that is aware of the challenges and constraints and is able to formulate policies to resolve them”[80] to enable the country to meet all 17 SDGs and its targets within the next eight years, especially SDGs 4, 5, and 6 on quality education, gender equality, and clean water and sanitation respectively.
Residents of Singapore need to adopt a concerted effort to make Singapore a better place for future generations to live in, including but not limited to leveling the playing field to facilitate momentous progress in gender equality, ensuring that there is sufficient clean and quality drinkable water for all to relish, and moving the needle on education for adults of tomorrow to enhance their quality of life.
If we do not take the Sustainable Development Goals seriously, we only have ourselves to blame for “[t]he demise of this world, or of the environment in which we live, will translate into the extinction of humankind.”[81]
[1] ‘Goal 4 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs’, United Nations Sustainable Development (Web Page) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4>
[2] ‘Goal 5 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs’, United Nations Sustainable Development (Web Page) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal5>
[3] ‘Goal 6 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs’, United Nations Sustainable Development (Web Page) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal6>
[4] ‘Goal 4 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs’, United Nations Sustainable Development (Web Page) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4>
[5] Compulsory Education Act 2000 (Singapore, cap 51, 2020 rev ed) ss 3(1)(a)-(c)
[6] ‘Exemption from compulsory education’, Ministry of Education, Singapore (Web Page) <https://www.moe.gov.sg/primary/compulsory-education/exemptions>
[7] Compulsory Education Act 2000 (Singapore, cap 51, 2020 rev ed) s 7(1)
[8] ‘Education Statistics Digest 2021’, Ministry of Education, Singapore (Report, 18 October 2021) <https://www.moe.gov.sg/-/media/files/about-us/education-statistics-digest-2021.ashx?la=en&hash=9E7EFD9B8088817C207F8AE797037AAA2A49F167>
[9] ‘Education Statistics Digest 2021’, Ministry of Education, Singapore (Report, 18 October 2021) <https://www.moe.gov.sg/-/media/files/about-us/education-statistics-digest-2021.ashx?la=en&hash=9E7EFD9B8088817C207F8AE797037AAA2A49F167>
[10] ‘Percentage of P1 Cohort Eligible for Secondary School’, Data.gov.sg (Web Page, 5 November 2021) <https://data.gov.sg/dataset/percentage-of-p1-cohort-eligible-for-express-normal-acad-normal-tech>
[11] ‘Total Net Enrolment Rate for Primary And Secondary Education’, Data.gov.sg (Web Page, 15 October 2021) <https://data.gov.sg/dataset/net-enrolment-ratio-for-primary-and-secondary-education?view_id=ab69441f-951a-4d99-9b31-735fa8530121&resource_id=7b184af5-b718-4c93-b217-c3bb3ab304f4>
[12] Compulsory Education Act 2000 (Singapore, cap 51, 2020 rev ed)
[13] ‘Gender Parity Index for Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Students’, Data.gov.sg (Web Page, 15 October 2021) <https://data.gov.sg/dataset/gender-parity-index-for-primary-secondary-tertiary-students?view_id=3e01f48c-2112-4536-a5b8-fe677a8a360e&resource_id=56122c03-3fd7-4146-ab22-049c1008ba46>
[14] ‘Total Net Enrolment Rate for Primary And Secondary Education’, Data.gov.sg (Web Page, 15 October 2021) <https://data.gov.sg/dataset/net-enrolment-ratio-for-primary-and-secondary-education?view_id=ab69441f-951a-4d99-9b31-735fa8530121&resource_id=7b184af5-b718-4c93-b217-c3bb3ab304f4>
[15] ‘Percentage of P1 Cohort That Did Not Complete Secondary Education’, Data.gov.sg (Web Page, 5 November 2021) <https://data.gov.sg/dataset/percentage-of-p1-cohort-who-did-not-complete-secondary-education?view_id=56fe5b73-0866-488d-ab12-0f680536207b&resource_id=3f529728-54f9-415e-af43-96babc18d514>
[16] ‘School fees’, Ministry of Education, Singapore (Web Page) <https://www.moe.gov.sg/financial-matters/fees>
[17] ‘Goal 4 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs’, United Nations Sustainable Development (Web Page) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4>
[18] ‘Types of schools’, Ministry of Education, Singapore (Web Page) <https://www.moe.gov.sg/education-in-sg/our-schools/types-of-schools>
[19] ‘Goal 5 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs’, United Nations Sustainable Development (Web Page) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal5>
[20] ‘Gender ratio in the World’, Statistics Times (Web Page, 26 August 2021) <https://statisticstimes.com/demographics/world-sex-ratio.php>
[21] ‘Facts and figures: Women’s leadership and political participation’, UN Women (Web Page, 15 January 2021) <https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures>
[22] ‘Number of countries with women in highest position of executive power 1960-2022’, Statista (Web Page, 4 April 2022) <https://www.statista.com/statistics/1058345/countries-with-women-highest-position-executive-power-since-1960/>
[23] Ibid.
[24] ‘Facts and figures: Women’s leadership and political participation’, UN Women (Web Page, 15 January 2021) <https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures>
[25] Ibid
[26] ‘Global Gender Gap Report 2021’, World Economic Forum (Report, March 2021) <https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf>
[27] ‘Facts and figures: Women’s leadership and political participation’, UN Women (Web Page, 15 January 2021) <https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures>
[28] ‘Countries with Female Leaders 2022’, World Population Review (Web Page) <https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/countries-with-female-leaders>
[29] ‘Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments in Singapore from 2011 to 2020’, Statista (Web Page, 25 October 2021) <https://www.statista.com/statistics/730313/singapore-proportion-of-seats-held-by-women-in-national-parliament/>
[30] ‘Global Gender Gap Report 2021’, World Economic Forum (Report, March 2021) <https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf>
[31] ‘Singapore to see record number of women enter Parliament after GE2020’, Channel NewsAsia (Web Page, 18 July 2020) <https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/ge2020-record-number-women-parliament-mps-singapore-643221>
[32] ‘Paternity leave’, Ministry of Manpower (Web Page) <https://www.mom.gov.sg/employment-practices/leave/paternity-leave>
[33] Employment, Parental Leave and Other Measures Act 2013 (Singapore)
[34] ‘A fresh look at paternity leave: Why the benefits extend beyond the personal’, McKinsey & Company (Web Page, 5 March 2021) < https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/people-and-organizational-performance/our-insights/a-fresh-look-at-paternity-leave-why-the-benefits-extend-beyond-the-personal>
[35] ‘A fresh look at paternity leave: Why the benefits extend beyond the personal’, McKinsey & Company (Web Page, 5 March 2021) < https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/people-and-organizational-performance/our-insights/a-fresh-look-at-paternity-leave-why-the-benefits-extend-beyond-the-personal>
[36] Ibid
[37] ‘Infographic: Update on Singapore’s Adjusted Gender Pay Gap’, Ministry of Manpower (Web Page, 21 October 2021) <https://stats.mom.gov.sg/Pages/Update-on-Singapores-Adjusted-Gender-Pay-Gap.aspx>
[38] Ibid
[39] ‘Western Countries 2022’, World Population Review (Web Page) <https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/western-countries>
[40] ‘The World’s Most Powerful Women 2021’, Forbes (Web Page, 7 December 2021) <https://www.forbes.com/power-women/#6e2831d05e25>
[41] Ibid
[42] ‘Female labour force participation rate in Singapore 2012-2021’, Statista (Web Page, 23 February 2022) <https://www.statista.com/statistics/951113/singapore-female-labor-force-participation-rate/>
[43] Ibid
[44] ‘Male labour force participation rate in Singapore 2012-2021’, Statista (Web Page, 23 February 2022) <https://www.statista.com/statistics/951123/singapore-male-labor-force-participation-rate/>
[45] ‘Women Are Getting Pushed Out of the Workforce — With Few Ways to Return’, Time (Web Page, 5 August 2021) <https://time.com/nextadvisor/in-the-news/women-in-the-workplace/>
[46] ‘S’pore must not shy away from dealing with daily battles that women face: Josephine Teo’, The Straits Times (Web Page, 5 April 2022) <https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/politics/spore-must-not-shy-from-dealing-with-daily-battles-that-women-face-josephine-teo>
[47] ‘Learn About the Tripartite Standards’, Tripartite Alliance for Fair & Progressive Employment Practices (Web Page) <https://www.tal.sg/tafep/getting-started/progressive/tripartite-standards>
[48] ‘Deloitte Women in the Boardroom report Press Release’, Deloitte (Web Page, 7 February 2022) <https://www2.deloitte.com/sg/en/pages/cxo-programs/articles/deloitte-women-in-the-boardroom-report-press-release.html>
[49] Ibid
[50] ‘Singapore posts highest percentage of women CEOs globally: Deloitte’, The Business Times (Web Page, 9 February 2022) < https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/companies-markets/singapore-posts-highest-percentage-of-women-ceos-globally-deloitte>
[51] ‘Employment rate for Singapore women rose in past decade, share among PMETs also up: MOM’, Channel NewsAsia (Web Page, 12 January 2022) <https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/employment-rate-singapore-women-rose-past-decade-share-among-pmet-ministry-manpower-2430196>
[52] ‘Global Gender Gap Report 2021’, World Economic Forum (Report, March 2021) <https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf>
[53] ‘Education Statistics Digest 2021’, Ministry of Education, Singapore (Report, 18 October 2021) <https://www.moe.gov.sg/-/media/files/about-us/education-statistics-digest-2021.ashx?la=en&hash=9E7EFD9B8088817C207F8AE797037AAA2A49F167>
[54] Ibid
[55] ‘Women and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)’, UN Women (Web Page) <https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/women-and-the-sdgs>
[56] ‘Goal 6 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs’, United Nations Sustainable Development (Web Page) <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal6>
[57] ‘Keeping Our Water Clean’, National Environment Agency (Web Page) < https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/pollution-control/water-quality/keeping-our-water-clean>
[58] Ibid
[59] Environmental Protection and Management Act (Singapore, cap 94A, 2020 rev ed) pt V
[60] Ibid
[61] Environmental Protection and Management Act (Singapore, cap 94A, 2020 rev ed) pt V
[62] ‘Turning Isolation into Opportunity’, International Water Association (Web Page) <https://iwa-network.org/city/singapore/>
[63] ‘NEWater’, PUB Singapore’s National Water Agency (Web Page) <https://www.pub.gov.sg/watersupply/fournationaltaps/newater>
[64] ‘Domestic & Non-Domestic’, PUB Singapore’s National Water Agency (Web Page) < https://www.pub.gov.sg/usedwater/treatment/usedwatertreatmentprocess>
[65] ‘NEWater’, PUB Singapore’s National Water Agency (Web Page) <https://www.pub.gov.sg/watersupply/fournationaltaps/newater>
[66] Ibid
[67] Environmental Public Health Act (Singapore, cap 95, 2020 rev ed) pt VIIII
[68] Environmental Public Health Act (Singapore, cap 95, 2020 rev ed) pt VIIII
[69] Environmental Public Health (Water Suitable For Drinking) (No. 2) Regulations (Singapore, cap 95, 2019 rev ed) pt II
[70] Environmental Public Health Act (Singapore, cap 95, 2020 rev ed) pt VIIII
[71] ‘Every drop counts’, Government of Singapore (Web Page) <https://www.gov.sg/features/every-drop-counts>
[72] Waseem Ahmad Qureshi, 'An Evaluation of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus and Its Alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals' (2020) 9(1) Penn State Journal of Law and International Affairs 58, 97
[73] Otto Spijkers, 'The Cross-fertilization between the Sustainable Development Goals and International Water Law' (2016) 25(1) Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law 39
[74] Julian Conrad Juergensmeyer and Audrone Vysniauskaite Durham, 'Rainwater Harvesting: Legal Frameworks in the United States, Singapore, and Other Countries' (2019) 3(1) Journal of Comparative Urban Law and Policy 81, 103
[75] Kheng Lian Koh, ‘Environmental Law in Singapore’ (2020) 32(1) Singapore Academy of Law Journal 335, 336
[76] ‘Parliament backs White Paper to improve equality, opportunities for S’pore women after 9.5-hour debate’, The Straits Times (Web Page, 5 April 2022) <https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/politics/parliament-backs-white-paper-to-improve-equality-opportunities-for-spore-women-after-95-hour-debate>
[77] ‘Women and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)’, UN Women (Web Page) <https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/women-and-the-sdgs>
[78] ‘Education Statistics Digest 2021’, Ministry of Education, Singapore (Report, 18 October 2021) <https://www.moe.gov.sg/-/media/files/about-us/education-statistics-digest-2021.ashx?la=en&hash=9E7EFD9B8088817C207F8AE797037AAA2A49F167>
[79] Compulsory Education Act 2000 (Singapore, cap 51, 2020 rev ed) ss 3(1)(a)-(c)
[80] Kheng Lian Koh, ‘Environmental Law in Singapore’ (2020) 32(1) Singapore Academy of Law Journal 335, 336
[81] Waseem Ahmad Qureshi, 'An Evaluation of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus and Its Alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals' (2020) 9(1) Penn State Journal of Law and International Affairs 58, 97
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